In Russia, as in many other countries, the key role of the nancial support of fundamental re- search is often play state-owned nancial institutions that often take the form of separate organizations - research foundations. Although even within a single state, such funds can di er in their organizational struc- ture, mechanisms and forms of money distribution, the size of the budget, however, the main objective of such organizations in most cases boils down to selecting and funding the most perspective research projects on a competitive basis. This similarity makes it possible to conduct a comparative analysis of such organizations ac- tivities, and, therefore, allows to obtain conclusions about the relatively e ciency of scienti c funds (regardless of country a liation). The article describes the characteristic features of the Russian state funds system, which supports fundamental research (RSF, RFBR and RHF), the main problematic areas of their work. This paper also contains the comparative analysis of Russian and foreign science foundations (NSF, NSFC, JSPS, ANR and United Kingdom research councils) on the basis of the indicator "average cost per article", implemented with the peculiarities consideration of online subscription-based scienti c citation indexing service Web of Science. The author proposed scheme for assessing the e ciency of spending these funds on research grants to determine the most "pro table" aggregated disciplinary area (from the science metrics point of view), priority support of which can substantially increase a country's share in scienti c publications international bases in the short term. However, the use of such a scheme has signi cant limitations in terms of compliance with the objectives to search and further support for breakthrough research, although it completely satisfy the objective of achievement of scienti c-technical complex development indicators, registered in the state strategic documents of the Russian Federation.olars are regarded as equals to those of other research schools (both within and outside the region).

Key words: basic research, research foundations, e ciency, nancing of research, publication activity, state science and technology policy.

References
1. Vodianitskaia E.A. Rol' i mesto nemetskogo nauchno-issledovatel'skogo soobshchestva v nauchnoi politike FRG [Role and place of DFG in German S&T polisy]. Vestnik MGIMO universiteta [Herald of MGIMO Univer- sity]. 2013. No. 6 (33). pp. 197-205 (in Russian).
2. Gusev A.B. Sud'ba federal'nykh tselevykh programm v sfere nauki (problemy sistemnosti i perspektivy programmno-tselevogo metoda) [Destiny of the federal direct programs in scienti c sphere (problems of their consistency and prospects of program-target method)]. Obshchestvo i Ekonomika [Society and Economy]. 2014. No 9. pp. 80-109 (in Russian).
3. Dezhina I.G. Gosudarstvennoe regulirovanie nauki v Rossii [State regulation of science in Russia]. In-t mirovoi ekonomiki i mezhdunar. otnoshenii RAN. 2007. 288 p. (in Russian).
4. Il'ina I.E. Analiz deiatel'nosti nauchnykh fondov, obespechivaiushchikh podderzhku fundamental'nykh issledovanii v Rossii [Analysis of the activities of research foundations that support basic research in Rus- sia]. Nauka. Innovatsii. Obrazovanie [Science. Innovation. Education]. 2015. No. 18. pp. 179-203 (in Russian).
5. Il'ina I.E., Sergeeva O.L., Iurevich M.A. Mekhanizmy povysheniia e ektivnosti sistemy nauchnykh fondov v Rossii (kollektivnaia monogra ia) [Mechanisms of increase of e ciency of scienti c funds system in Russia (the collective monograph)]. Ekonomika i promyshlennaia politika: teoriia i instrumentarii [Economics and industrial policy: theory and instrumentation]. Ed. Phd, prof. AV Babkin. Saint-Petersburg: Izd-vo SPbGPU. 2014. pp. 32-68 (in Russian).
6. Informatsiia o deiatel'nosti Rossiiskogo nauchnogo fonda v 2014 godu [Information on the activities of the Russian science Foundation in 2014]. Available at: http://www.rscf.ru/sites/default/ les/information_ about_RSF_2014_0.pdf (Accessed 15 August 2015) (in Russian).
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8. Konnov V. I. Printsipy nauchnogo samoupravleniia v sovremennoi sotsiologii nauki [Principles of scienti c self-governance in contemporary sociology of science]. Filosofskie nauki [Philosophy sciences]. 2007. No. 4. pp. 97-114 (in Russian).
9. Mindeli L.E., Pipiia L.K., Medvedeva T.Iu. etc. Fundamental'naia nauka v Rossii [Basic science in Russia]. Ed. L.K. Pipiia. Moscow: Institut problem razvitiia nauki RAN. 2014. 319 p. (in Russian).
10. Otchet o deiatel'nosti RFFI za 2014 god [The report on the activity of RFBR in 2014]. Available at: http:// www.rfbr.ru/r /ru/annotated_project_reports/o_1924303 (Accessed 15 August 2015) (in Russian).
11. Sterligov I. Simuliatsiia nauki kak otvet na upravlencheskii primitivism [Simulation science as a response to managerial primitivism.]. Available at: http://slon.ru/economics/simulyatsiya_nauki_kak_otvet_na_uprav- lencheskiy_primitivizm-1148735.xhtml (Accessed 18 September 2015) (in Russian).
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budget/ (Accessed 15 August 2015).
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Modern regional integration agreements (RIA) include the norms of the regulation of admission and operation of foreign investment. They di er signi cantly from each other in the form of investment liberalization, the formsof investor protection, the promotion of foreign investment, the establishment of a dispute settlement mechanism, spread on mutual investments and/or investments from non-member countries. International standards is generally recognized relevant rules of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

Investment regulation su ciently develops in the countries of North, Central and South America. As an example, the present article examines the investment practice and its impact on the in ow of foreign investment in the three integration blocks – NAFTA, Mercosur and the Andean Community

Widespread RIAs have stimulated a shift in the regulation of foreign investment from bilateral investment agreements to regional integration agreements. In most cases, regional agreements lead to the creation of free trade zones, covering issues on investment liberalization. The reason relates to the consolidation and harmonization investment codes, and represents a step forward to the revitalization of multilateral regulation of foreign investments. A characteristic feature of regional integration in the eld of mutual investment is holding liberalization based on eliminating or signi cantly reducing barriers to access and operation of mutual investments. In a number of agreements total investment liberalization is provided, such as in NAFTA. However, in most RIAs in Western Hemisphere partial investment liberalization bases on national treatment.

There are two most common investment regimes – the-most-favored-nations-treatment and national treatment. In addition, the integration agreements include the rules for the protection of balance of payments under the non-discrimination treatment and noti cation and compliance with the Charter of the IMF.

Regional integration agreements contain articles on protection of the rights and interests of foreign investors, taking into account the norms of international law and national investment policy.

However, RIAs in Western Hemisphere do not include some topics such as the promotion of foreign investments and attract key personnel that distinguishes their investment practice from the practice of RIAs in Asia-Paci c region.

Key words: investment regulation, regional integration agreements, Western Hemisphere, NAFTA, Mercosur, the Andean Community.

References
1. Kostyunina G.M. Inostranniye investitsii (teoriya i praktika zarubegnih stran): uchebnoye posobiye [The Foreign Investment (the Theory and Practice of Foreign States]. Moscow, INFRA-M Publ., 2014. 304 p. (In Russian).
2. Kostyunina G.M. Integratsionnye protsessi v Zapadnom polusharii: monographiya [The Integration in the Western Hemisphere]. Moscow, MGIMO-University Publ., 2013. 317 p. (In Russian).
3. Kostyunina G.M. Sovremennie konseptsii formirovaniya zoni svobodnoy torgovli v Aziatsko-Tikhookeanskom regione [The Modern Concepts of Formation of Free Trade Area in the Asia Paci c]. Rossiyskiy vneshneeko- nomicheskiy vestnik [The Russian Foreign Economic Journal], 2011, no. 6, pp.31-42 (In Russian).
4. Kostyunina G.M., Adamchuk N.G., Baronov V.I. Yediniy vnutrenniy rinok Evropeyskogo souyza: uchebnoye posobiye [The Single Internal Market of the European Union]. Moscow, Magistr Publ., 2014. 383 p. (In Russian).
5. Platonona I.N. Megdunarodniye ekonomicheskiye otnosheniya v epoghu globalizatsii: uchebnoye po- sobiye [The International Economic Relations in the Era of Globalization]. PlatonovaI.N., LiventsevN.N.,
KostyuninaG.M., BuglayV.B. Moscow, Prospekt Publ., 344 p. (In Russian).
6. Simonova M.D. Problemi izmereniya pokazateley mejdunarodnoy torgovli v usloviyah globalizatsii [The
Problems of Measurement Statistics of Foreign Trade in the Era of Globalization]. Voprosi statistiki, 2013, no. 1, pp. 69-74 (In Russian).
7. Turlay I.S. Regulirovaniye usloviy dopuska i osuchestvleniya inostrannyich investitsiy in regionalnich in- tegratsionnich soglasheniyach. [The Regulations of Admission and Functioning of Foreign Investment in the Regional Integration Agreements]. Ekonomika: vchera, segodnya i zavtra, no. 3-4, 2012, pp. 140-151. (In Russian).
8. Decision 291 Regime for the Common Treatment of Foreign Capital and Trademarks, Patents, Licensing Agreements and Royalties. The Commission Of The Cartagena Agreement. 1991. SICE - the Organization of American States Foreign Trade Information System Website. Available at: http://www.sice.oas.org/trade/ JUNAC/decisiones/dec291e.asp (accessed 08.12.2015)
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10. MERCOSUR/CMC/DEC. No 11/94: Protocol on promotion and protection of investments coming from Non- Mercosur state parties. : Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Paraguay, 1994. SICE - the Organization of American States Foreign Trade Information System Website. Available at: http://www.sice.oas.org/Trade/ MRCSR/colonia/pcolonia_p.asp (accessed 08.12.2015)
11. MERCOSUR Protocol of Colonia for the Promotion and Protection of Investments (1994). SICE - the Orga- nization of American States Foreign Trade Information System Website. Available at: http://www.sice.oas. org/Trade/MRCSRS/Decisions/dec1194e.asp (accessed 08.12.2015)
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Foreign trade traditionally plays an important role in the Russian economy. It was pivotal in the country’s economic recovery and further development after the break-up of the Soviet Union. Currently export earnings constitute a major part of Budget revenues, while imports provide the economy with modern machinery and equipment as well as food supplies.

The article covers development trends and features of the Russian foreign trade. The author demonstrates its consistent dynamic trends and the positive balance of payments, except for the period of nancial and economic crisis of the rst decade in the XXIst century. However, the trade structure is dominated by mineral resources and fuels, which share is very high and growing, with a limited role of machinery and equipment, especially high-tech products, as well is highly dependent on the imports of most types of advanced equipment and foodstu s. This demonstrates limited diversi cation and competitiveness of the country’s economy, its high dependence on the situation on global commodities markets. Vulnerability of the Russian Economy is also explained by the concentration of the bulk of foreign trade on relatively limited number of countries.

The conclusion of this article is that it is necessary to further diversify the geographical markets and to improve the structure of foreign trade, i.e. by attracting foreign direct investments, incorporating the country into global value-added chains, more active ties with the post-soviet countries.

Key words: foreign trade, exports, imports, trade balance, export earnings.

References
1. Byulleten’o razvitii konkurentsii. Prodovolstvennoye embargo: importozamesheniye ii zmeneniye strukturi vneshney torgovli [Food embargo: import substitution and transformation of structure odforegn trade]. Analiticheskiy tsentr pri pravitelstve Rossiyskoy Federatsii, 2015.
2. Vkhozdeniye Rossii v sotsialno-economicheskiy krizis: tendentsii 2015 goda i sravnitelniy analiz [Russian entrance in socal-economic crisis: trends of 2015 and comparative analysis].Report by L. Grigoryeva. Anal- iticheskiy tsentr pri pravitelstve Rossiyskoy Federatsii, 2015.
3. GladkovI .S. Vneshnyaya torgovlya Rossii: retrospectivtiy analiz I sovremennost’. [Russia’s foreign trade: retrospective analysis].Moscow.: In-t Evropi RAN: Rus. suvenir, 2012. 84 p.
4. Kreidenko T.F., Mironova M.N., UmerovaI. A.. Tendentsii rossiyskoy vneshney torgovli: economicheskiye I regionalniye aspekty [The trends of Russian foreign trade: economical and regional issues].Vestnik Omsk- ogouniversiteta. 2011, No. 4. .P. 43–52.
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report14_e.pdf

The article describes the role of planning at the state level in a market economy. It is emphasized that the understatement of the state regulation and the state strategic planning, overestimating the regulatory role of the market (forgetting about the danger of its "failure" ( asco) ) may lead to serious problems in the development of the country. In Japan, France, USA, Germany, Norway and other countries due attention is given to systems of state regulation and planning. The article provides a chronology of the national plans of Japan including Abe’s plan to revive economic growth - "Plan of three arrows" (2013- to present), de nes the measures to promote the pace of economic development. The assessment of the achieved results is given. In countries with developed market economy, forecastes and strategic plans for socio-economic development at the national, regional and sectoral levels are designed. The planning system also includes targeted programs and crisis planning. Evolution of national planning has undergone a number of stages: from short-term to a scenario planning, which is to address to solve the problems of turbulence and uncertainty in the development of the market environment in recent decades This is involves a system "airbag" , methods the simultaneous development of a series of backup plans for the next period. It allows in case of implementation and changing conditions market development planning to switch to the appropriate version. It emphasizes the special role of the strategic and anti-crisis plan.

After more than20 years since the beginning of perestroika in our country the need to develop strategies for the development of leading Russian state corporations has also been identi ed and, as well as to establish a system of strategic planning at the state level. In particular, in our country, the Federal Law N172-FZ "On the strategic planning in the Russian Federation" on June 28, 2014 has been adopted.

Key words: state planning, planning in market economy, state regulation (public administration), strategic, crisis, scenario planning, japan system of state plannin g.

References
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2. Nozdryov S. Reguljativnaja sistema Japonii v uslovijah global'noj  nansovoj reformy. [Regulatory framework of Japan in the face of global  nancial reform]. Coll. ed. Khudyakova LS New approaches to global  nancial regulation. Moscow., IMEMO, 2015, Pp.61-64(in Russian).
3. Fayolle A. Fajol' A.Obshhee i promyshlennoe upravlenie.[ Total and industrial administration]. - Moscow, Alfa-Press, 2007. (in Russian).
4. Federal'nyj zakon ot 28 ijunja 2014 g. N 172-FZ «O strategicheskom planirovanii v RossijskojFederacii» [Federal Law of June 28, 2014 N 172-FZ "On the strategic planning Russian Federation"]., System GARANT: http: //base.garant.ru/70684666/#ixzz3ovXvDfVd.(in Russian).
5. Khlynov V. Obshhegosudarstvennoe planirovanie rynochnoj jekonomiki: opyt Japonii. [State planning in market economy: the experience of Japan]. Problems of the Far East. No.2, 1997.(in Russian).
6. Economic Servey of Japan. Japan Economic Planning Agency.2000.Pp.60
7. Japan Statistic Yearbook. Statistical Bureau, Ministry of Internal A airs and Communications of Japan,
2014.Р.23
8. Hoshino S.Seiji to shite-no keizai keikaku.Tokyo,Nihon keizai hyoronsha, 2003, P.641.
9. Karth R.The E ectivenes of Crisis Planning.University of Texas at Arlington, 2011.P.38
10. Lindgren M., Bandhold H. Scenario Planning: The Link Between Future and Strategy. New York, Palgrave
Macmillan,2003.,Pp.21-46.
11. Newsru.com/arch/ / Экономика.18.1.2011
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24,2015; ProFinanceservive, –20.11.13
13. Simerson K. Strategic planning. A Practical Guide to Strategy Formulation and Execution. Santa Barbara,
California, Praeger, 2011.Pp.25-28.
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and Prospects. – London, Springer, 2015.Pp.61-76.

After the collapse of the Bretton Woods system one of the key economic decisions facing any government is its choice of exchange rate regime. Whether to x the exchange rate or let it oat and be determined by the market – is a very important question for many countries because the exchange rate regime can have signi cant impacts on a variety of aspects of the economy. The article analyzes the macroeconomic implications of di erent exchange rate regimes.

The modern era includes a wide variety of exchange rate regime experiences across countries – from hard peg to free oating. But regimes declared by the government (de jure regimes) often di er from those used in practice (de facto regimes). Free oating regime is used mostly be advanced economies (including euro area). The traditional choice of emerging and developing economies – xed exchange rate and intermediate regimes, when exchange rate can be managed by central bank.

Fixing the exchange rate may provide a "nominal anchor" for the economy to help discipline the central bank from printing too much money. This leads to signi cantly lower in ation rate in pegged countries. In addition pegging promotes an expansion of bilateral trade with the base country. But at the same time xed exchange rate limits monetary policy independence. The policy trilemma states that the government of a country can choose no more than two of three policy options: free capital mobility, xed exchange rates, and domestic monetary autonomy. Using oating exchange rate allows a country to pursue independent monetary policy, but scal policy can results in an undesirable change of the real exchange rate, especially when international capital mobility is high.

Key words: exchange rate regime, xed exchange rate, oating exchange rate, currency board, “nominal anchor”, monetary police, trilemma, macroeconomic policy in an open economy.

References
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2. Obstfeld M., Rogo  K. The Mirage of Fixed Exchange Rates // Journal of Economic Perspectives. 1995, Vol.
9, No.4. – P. 73-96.
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cies / International Monetary Fund. Working Paper WP/02/155. – Washington D.C., September 2002. – 45 p.
4. Reinhart C., Rogo  K. The Modern History of Exchange Rate Arrangements: A Reinterpretation," Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 2004, No. 119(1), p. 1–48.
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Working Paper 17318. October 2011. 40 p.
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ington, D.C. – October 2014.
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Vol. 50, No.2. P.3-24.
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ment, December 1998. P. 40–43.
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Washington D.C., 1998. 22 p.
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Choice. / IMF. Working Paper WP/08/132. – Washington D.C., May 2008. 45 p.
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Rate Regime. IMF Working Paper WP/06/37. – Washington D.C., February 2006. 44 p.
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In 2014 the newly elected Indonesian president Joko Widodo declared his doctrine “In- donesia – World Maritime Fulcrum”. His intention is to transform Indonesia which connects two great oceans – Indian and Paci c – into a strategic logistic and trade world hub as well as the main supplier of sea products for the world market. Indonesian government plans to build 35 deepwater and ordinary ports across the archipelago during the next ve years. The implementation of the project demands colossal money investments and gigantic volumes of work. Indonesia cannot do it alone, the country needs foreign investors and constructors.

A number of Asian and Europe countries expressed their intentions to cooperate with Indonesia in the maritime sector. But the most interested turned out to be China which expressed its ardent desire to cooperate with Indonesia in the sector of maritime industry. And it is quite understandable taking into consideration that China worked out its own project “Maritime Silk Road” which comprises the same sea territory as Indonesia’s “Maritime Fulcrum” project. Chinese leaders invited Indonesia to closely cooperate in implementing these two projects which are mutually coinciding and complementary. Indonesian leaders gladly accepted this invitation hoping to gain a lot from cooperation with China. Chinese “Maritime Silk Road” project will contribute to the development of inter-island communicativity which is strongly needed especially in the eastern part of Indonesian archipelago. In addition China agreed to participate in building and reconstructing Indonesian ports. Some Indonesian observers greet close cooperation with China as a very pro table business opportunity but others express apprehensions that too close cooperation with China could be dangerous for Indonesian sovereignty over its territorial waters.

Key words: Indonesia, Maritime World Fulcrum, Maritime Silk Road, Indonesian-Chinese relations, President Joko Widodo.

References
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2. Videnie I deystvie, napravlennye na prodvizhenie sovmestnogog stroitelstva “Economicheskogo poyasa Shelkovogom Puty”i“Morskogo Shelkovogom Puty 21 veka”[Vision and Action towards jointly promoting the building of“The Economic Belt of the Silk Road” and“The Maritime Silk Road of 21 century”2015/04/23].
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The article analyses military and technical cooperation of the United States and APAC. After the successful implementation of the rst phase of the European Phased Adaptive Approach (EPAA), adopted in September 2009, the United States began to develop a similar plan for the Asia-Paci c region - Asia-Paci c Adaptive Approach. The ultimate goal of such large-scale missile defense deployment is to convince the adversaries that the use of ballistic missiles is useless in military terms and that any attack on the United States and its allies is doomed to failure. The United States are developing military cooperation with its allies and partner countries in the Asia-Paci c region, excluding interests of China and Russia. That may only exacerbate a struggle for power between the three world largest countries and lead to negative consequences - involvement in the arms race.

Key words: Asia-Paci c region, ballistic missile defense (BMD), Asia-Paci c Adaptive Approach, ballistic missile, arms race.

References
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Permanent self-reproduction of crises or getting into so called development traps in under- developed countries constitutes one of the most signi cant world problems. An explanatory hypothesisis that antagonistic relationship between formal and informal institutions makes it impossible to overcome path dependence. The problem is illustrated by the case of Rwanda, which, despite the large-scale foreign aid in the 1960s-early 1990s, failed to resolve the growing socio-political contradictions that eventually led to the 1994 genocide. However, since the 2000s Rwanda has been demonstrating an upward trend especially in governance and control of corruption. In the author’s view, success in the post-genocidal period was de- termined by two factors:  rst, by the institutional vacuum created by the collapse of competitive rules and practices of the President Habyarimana era; second, by the e ective leadership shown by the ruling elite support of informal practices to overcome the crisis. Between the possible reform options the choice was made in favor of formalization of autochthonous practices, introduction of traditional or restored ( lled with a new meaning) institutions into the legal sphere, and creation of new rules. Rwanda is therefore an example of successful institutional transformation.

Key words: development traps, Rwanda, foreign aid, World Bank, western donors, institutional changes, formal and informal institutions, traditional norms and practices.

References
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The article addresses the cooperation between the United Nations and regional organizations, in particular the African Union in the sphere of security and settlement of con icts. Over the last decade the role of the AU and sub regional organizations has dramatically increased. Through its agencies of ensuring peace and security the African Union is making signi cant contribution to strengthening stability and promotion of democracy and human rights in Africa. In the beginning of the article authors make a review of the level of security on the African continent and stress the sharpest con ict zones. According to researches one of the most turbulent regions on continent in terms of security is the North-East Africa.

Continuing quarter-century war in Somalia, con ict relations between Somalia and Ethiopia, the border crises between Ethiopia and Eritrea, which in the late 20th century turned into the war between the two countries, nally, the number of armed clashes in Sudan attracted the special attention to the region of the entire world community. Authors pay the main attention to the cooperation between the United Nations and the African Union in the sphere of settling regional con icts and holding peacekeeping operations. In the article the main mechanisms and methods that are used by the United Nations and the African Union to hold peacekeeping operations are analyzed in details. The situation in Somalia and e orts of the United Nations and the African Union that are making towards stabilization in this country are also studied. Authors reveal the basic elements and make a review of the mixed multicomponent peacekeeping operation of the United Nations and the African Union in Sudan. In the conclusion authors stress the measures that could strengthen the strategic cooperation between the United Nations and the African union. According to the authors the most important task is to solve problems of nancing joint peacekeeping operations quickly and e ectively.

Key words: United Nations, Security Council, African Union, Somalia, Sudan, Regional Con icts, Peacekeeping in Africa, Regional Security, AMISOM, UNAUMID.

References
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The article deals with the description and analysis of functioning of the Italian national system of economic diplomacy.The author provides an insight into the historical and economic background and conditions of its development from the earliest stages to present time focusing on the latest events (from 2010 onwards).He casts light upon the procedures and mechanisms of interaction between the key national economic-diplomatic agents i.e. ministry of foreign a airs, ministry of economic development, export-promotion agency ITA, investment-attraction agency Invitalia, other authorized bodies (in particular, the Coordination Council on the Internationalization of the Italian Economy – CRII), public and private institutes. The article outlines the main principles of the new system of foreign economic policy “Sistema Paese” which is being implemented since 2011. This concept is based upon e cient cooperation (“team play”) between the chief institutes of economic diplomacy with a system approach to elaboration and realizing measures aimed at the internationalization of the Italian business. Innovative elements of “Sistema Paese” do not just imply another reorganization of the MFA, but a completely new approach to issues concerning the position of Italy on the world arena. The author looks into concrete mechanisms of economic diplomacy which basically include measures of national export promotion and assistance to Italian companies in the course of new markets penetration, as well as measures on attraction of foreign direct investment inter alia from developing countries. He mentions that subnational regions of Italy, especially Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto and Sicily, tend to be more and more involved into processes of FDI attraction. Another important trend and particular feature of Italy’s modern economic diplomacy is the practice of decentralization of nancial management within the MFA system through providing the heads of diplomatic representations with speci c competences in this area. Finally, a special emphasis is put on the tight link between instruments of “soft power” and economic diplomacy and their institutional usage, which has deep historical roots.

Key words: Italian economy, economic diplomacy; microeconomic diplomacy; macroeconomic diplomacy; foreign investment attraction; foreign economic policy; diplomatic support of national business.

References
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The authors examine the structure and principles of the defense spending for research and development in the U.S., as well as the main agencies and contractors involved. The article o ers speci c cases to illustrate the role of key players of the U.S. budgetary process, the U.S. President, Congress, Department of Defense, and their relations with the scienti c community. Spending in this area is organized as a three-level structure, which includes development of new weapons systems, creation of military platforms and systemic integration of the armed forces. One of the most noteworthy participants on the weapons development level is the Defense advanced research projects agency (DARPA), which provides support for R&D projects able to facilitate technological breakthroughs and provide results applicable by the armed forces. The emphasis of the article is on the participation of the private sector on all levels of the defense spending and especially in the systemic integration. At this level even formulating the request becomes a highly challenging task, which demands involvement of the most highly quali ed specialists and organizations. The authors analyze the advantages and disadvantages of the wide participation of commercial enterprises and provide cases illustrating possible con icts between government and private actors and ways of their resolution.

Key words: research policy, defense spending, DARPA, weapons development.

References
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The article discusses the attitude of the ruling elite in modern France to the school teaching of history, as the primary method of formation of political consciousness and outlook of the new genera- tions. To achieve these purposes the complex of scienti c and political methods is created. The programs are constantly changing, re ecting the general political struggle in French society, whose protagonists seek the arguments in support of their positions in history. In this context, the school programs are periodically in focus of urgent debates, and each their change is a compromise.

The political approach is to form a state point of view of history, recorded in the programs required to study in schools. Those programs include a carefully selected set of topics, facts and personalities to be studied. In addition, the internal political struggle is coming not just about the form but the content too. In particular, for a number of years in the program a separate theme "Islam" is included, but not, for example, the theme "Christianity." However, supporters of the preservation of study of the Christian contribution to the history and the culture of France retain extensive relevant material included in a number of various subjects not directly devoted to Christianity.

Informational approach to education is that the resources of the psyche and student’s instructional time are very limited. The freedom of school teachers to refer to historical sources and even to interpret them within the broad framework is formally proclaimed. However, a program and a limited time to study it in conjunction with the responsibility of teachers for the results of their work, checked in exams, in fact does not leave them enough time to study an other point of view that goes beyond the o cial program.

Key words: France, ideology, politics, information society, information approach, the teaching of history, education.

References
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formatsionnom obshchestve [The provincial metropolis in the modern information society]. Chelyabinsk:
Entsiklopediia, 2010, pp. 74-79 (in Russian)
2. Litvak N.V. Informatsionnyi podkhod k opredeleniiu mezhkul'turnoi kommunikatsii [Information approach
to the de nition of cross-cultural communication]. Mezhkul'turnaia kommunikatsiia: sovremennaia teoriia i praktika. Materialy VII Konventa RAMI sentiabr' 2012 g. [Intercultural Communication: the modern theory and practice. Proceedings of the VII Convention RISA September 2012]. Moscow, Publishing Company "Aspect Press", 2012, pp. 274-282 (in Russian)
3. Litvak N.V. Sovremennye kontseptsii informatsionnogo obshchestva [The modern concepts of the informa- tion society]. Moscow, MGIMO (University), 2013. 85 p. (in Russian)
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The paper deals with the range of problems regarding the relation between decisions of political elite in small states and their striving for occupying a certain niche in external (foreign) political environment. The typology of such niches is proposed.

The article deals with economic, military, political, and ideological dimensions of political elites’ decisions in the Baltic states. The article makes the case of the following hypothesis: the exploitation of the “Russian threat” concept by political elites of the Baltic states is aimed at occupying a special niche within the Euro-Atlantic community. The narrow corridor for political maneuver imposed by strategic imperatives of NATO induces political elites of the Baltic states to attract attention of powerful states, which brings resources, nances and more prominent status. Inciting confrontation with Russia serves as a means for internal political consolidation, proving loyalty towards NATO, and contributes to individual careers of politicians with the EU institutions. The choice of ‘con ict model’ entails side-e ects: slowdown of social and economic development in the long run.

The following research inference is made: by means of con ict model which is being realized within external political niche (“gate-keeper” and “missionary” types) political elite of the Baltic states gain additional resources in the middle-term perspective. However, in the long term this political course generally reduces opportunities for political and economic development of small states.

In theoretical and methodological dimension the research results con rm productivity of three-level analysis approach towards activity of political elite. The most general level of analysis deals with empire units of international relations which structure the environment for small states’ elites actions. At the middle level it is possible scrutinize di erent varieties of external (foreign) political niches available to a certain small state. The third level of analysis deals with investigation of concrete economic, military, political and ideological decisions of political elite within a certain external (foreign) political niche.

Key words: political elite, Baltic states, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, NATO, infrastructure, foreign policy niche.

References
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The Baltic countries - the next neighbors of Russia, whose history is closely linked with our country in the period of Kievan Rus, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and today in a broad European context. Both Russia and the Baltic states are the states that make up the Baltic region. The role of this region in the European integration is the key. The border between Russia and the European Union, Russia and the EU are in direct contact, there is a direct interaction between the peoples of Europe, divided by confrontations of the twentieth century. In this border area sociocultural di usion occurs between the two parts of the European continent.

Factor of cooperation of neighbors is an essential guarantee of stability of the world system. For this cooperation to be productive, you must have an adequate view of the neighbors, about the processes that take place there. Knowing immediate environment in a globalized world is a prerequisite for good neighborly relations. The condition of willingness to help, if needed. In the current civilization elevated risk mutual de nitely be in demand. Historical experience shows that the lack of objective knowledge is the cause of misunderstanding, and often the source of origin of enmity. This is not only of interest to neighboring nations, but the need to have certain knowledge about them, are closely linked to historical responsibility. Feature stories is that it is inextricably linked with modernity. For public decision-making needs of reliable knowledge about the processes that led to the present, the historical conditions of social psychology folding neighboring nations, forms of expression of their national characteristics.

On the basis of sociological methods - from the study of documentary and literary sources, analysis of the results of mass surveys to group discussions and participant observation - analyzes the problems of mutual Russian and Baltic peoples.

Key words: intercultural interaction factor Neighborhood, general and particular, Western and Eastern Christianity, the Baltic region, ethnic characteristics, socio-cultural phenomenon of migrant, myths and stereotypes in the perception of ethnic groups.

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The article analyzes the main internal problems of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Particular attention is paid to the con ict of interests of the participating countries, as well as identifying obstacles to strengthen the organization and increase its in uence in the international arena. The interna- tional organizations are created by the states to meet mutual problems in the course of interstate relations requiring regular cooperation mechanism. Given the background of the Organization, it is important to emphasize that the main reason for the establishment of the Shanghai organization was the need for the united front against the strengthening of the region at the turn of centuries against dangerous trends of terrorism, extremism, separatism, the growth of organized crime. Despite the con ict of interests and the internal and external development challenges thirteen-year history of evolution of the SCO, to some extent proves its e ectiveness, moreover, there are the preconditions for its consistent transition to a more comprehensive organization.

Key words: e Shanghai Cooperation Organization, intergovernmental relations, international security.

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In the article, public diplomacy is seen as a set of actions committed by o cial and uno cial organs of the state, to achieve foreign policy goals through the dissemination of information (disinforma- tion) or create the necessary impact on the ruling circles and the public in foreign countries. According to the authors, public diplomacy has become an integral part of network-centric hybrid war, in which the role of the information against the enemy becomes decisive. At the beginning of the XXI century media, including network, it has become the most important policy tools with which you can achieve the most important goals that were decided before the other (economic, military, nancial) policy instruments. Such a sharp increase in the values of the media, as well as a qualitative change in their role in the policy of the XXI century is primarily the result of two processes, the further development of which will be an even greater extent to enhance the value and role of media in politics States - a sharp increase in the value of man, its capacity, rstly, and the technological revolution in the eld of science, and second.

Key words: public diplomacy, network centered war, the media information.

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The article represents a collective research of space identities at the Russian-Chinese border. The authors analyze the space con guration formed at the frontier of Blagoveshensk and Chei- Che regarding it as a social construction. It was an attempt to de ne the mechanisms of creating space identity at the exible border marked by uctuations of economic, political and cultural ows. There is a case of the Chinese town Chei-Che which is more open towards a Russian in uence as well as to a deeper integration with the Russian side. Besides, there is a case of Blagoveshensk and its residents’ perception of their Chinese “neighbor”.

Two major spatial bases of stateness are traditionally singled out: nation-building and threats to security or, in other words, labeling mental boundaries of community “Us” and actualizing “Others”. Threats to security or, rather, a discourse on them, form “Others” image, on the opposition to which is based nation and its geopolitical code. Existing stable centre-peripheral relations in each country put some thought about the third state-building mechanism – internal “Other”. Interregional di erentiation within a state through establishing and maintaining the internal mental boundaries between centre and periphery comprises a mechanism to identify territories which need support to continue to act in compliance with national norms and thereof to facilitate stateness. Russian history could be interpreted as a periodic arti cial reproduction of semi-periphery which sets the mental boundaries of internal “Other”. Suburban colonized territories which created an attractive image of Russian state in other territories’ eyes and were funded to the detriment of Russian internal regions became semi-periphery.

The research conclusions derive from series eld research made in two-cities, during which some sociological and qualitative methods were used. The authors make a conclusion that Blagoveshensk and Chei-Che have two di erent patterns of space identities determined by o cial discourse and ordinary perception.

Key words: critical geopolitics, space identity, discursive practices, socially – constructed space.

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The paper discusses in-depth new perspectives in the Holocaust studies. It pays special attention to the spatiality of the Nazi camps and analyzes the Holocaust geographies more in general. It conceptualizes the camp as a ‘space of lawlessness’ that was created by political means of terror and exclusion. The speci c spatiality of the Nazi camp was constructed by perpetrators with intentions to neglect both juridical law and moral laws of humanity. To prove this point the author analyzes P. Levi, the survivor of Auschwitz, witness and his prominent books “The Drowned and the Saved” and “If This Is a Man”. After reading his witness one can conclude that two spatial characteristics of the camp have been the most fundamental. The rst one were the borders that cut the camp’s inmates from the people lived in the outside world and made impossible all human relations like providing help, solidarity, empathy. The second one was ‘the grey zone’ – a spatial metaphor that P. Levi used to explain all forms of collaboration with the camp authorities. The presence of the ‘grey zone’ as a main characteristic of the Nazi camp allows us to conceptualize it as a ‘space’ where ‘the starry heavens and internal moral law’ were no more present. So, the Nazi camp is a ‘place of indistinction’, a ‘spatial threshold’ where ‘moral’ and ‘immoral’, ‘human’ and ‘animal’, ‘drowned’ and ‘saved’ were no more distinguishable. The author analyzes more broaden Holocaust geographies outside the camp. Nazis used extensively occupied territories in Eastern Europe to perpetrate their crimes. The author concludes that the geographical localization of the Holocaust was an expression of Nazi irrational genocidal intentions and spatial imaginations. Eastern territories have been constructed by Nazis as ‘broaden spaces of exception and lawlessness’. That spatial imagination and planning allowed the perpetrators to neglect juridical and moral laws in reality. The paper concludes by insisting on the importance of the Holocaust legacy for modern humanitarian action and thinking. The Holocaust legacy helps us to conceptualize more precisely ‘new spaces of lawlessness’. It provides a base for the concepts of human security and ‘global responsibility’ for saving humanity in the contemporary world.

Key words: Holocaust, genocide, one-sided violence, political space, space of exception, G.Agamben, legacy, Second World War, biopolitics, human security.

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The present article is dedicated to the analysis of “corruption” from point of view of political practice and political theory. The present article studies historical examples of corruption: corruption during the era of Alexander the Great, Carthage, Roman Republic. The article gives the evolution of the term “corruption”, pointing out current aspects of the term. The article provides positive and negative results of corruption, gives resume. The present article analyses corruption results: economical, political and social. Most important economical consequences of corruption are the following: increase of shadow economy, decrease of tax payments, weakening of the state budget, breach of market competition, decrease of market e ectiveness, destabilization of the idea of market economy. Most important social consequences of corruption are the following: great distinction between the declared and real values, which creates a “double standard” of the moral and behavior, distraction of great sums from public and humanitarian development, increase of property disproportion, increase of social tension. The present article names most important political consequences of corruption: shift of ideas from public development to the security of power of oligarchy, decrease of trust to the state, decrease of image of the country at the international arena, increase of its economical and political isolation, decrease of political competition. The present article gives one of the resumes that the globalization process increases corruption. Together with globalization most important role is given to corporations and corporate corruption comes to the front raw.

Key words: corruption, political theory problem, political practice problem, historical examples of corruption, meaning of corruption, consequences of corruption, competition, political structure, Alexander the Great, state power.

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